Measuring safe, stable and nurturing relationships among adolescents in China, Democratic Republic of Congo and Indonesia: Association with peer-violence experiences

Background: Safe, stable, and nurturing relationships (SSNRs) are an essential component of healthy child development. However, there is a scintilla of data on the measurement of SSNRs and whether these conceptualizations have different associations with peer-violence. Objective: We examined two ways of measuring SSNRs (domains and latent class analysis (LCA)) and their relationship with peer violence victimization and perpetration among adolescents across three countries. Participants and setting: Three longitudinal datasets (Wave 1- Wave 3) were used from Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), China, and Indonesia (n = 6068). Adolescents were purposefully selected if they were 10-14 years old and living in urban poor communities during Wave 1. Methods: We examined associations between both SSNR conceptualizations (domains and LCA) and peer-violence experiences cross-sectionally and longitudinally using multivariable logistic regressions for each site. Results: We found similarities and differences across sites. The class structure (through LCA) differed across sites. All sites had a high SSNR class. In Indonesia and Shanghai there was a low SSNR class, high parental factor class, and high SSNR except social cohesionclass. In Indonesia and Kinshasa, associations with peer-violence were found for both conceptualizations (domain and LCA). In Shanghai, only the latent classes showed association with peer-violence experiences. In general, SSNRs were protective against peer-violence experiences during Wave 1. Conclusion: LCA provides a more subtle understanding of SSNRs. In particular, positive family relationships play a critical role in reducing peer violence experiences. Developing programs require cross-sectoral collaborations that involve families and communities to prevent peer-violence. Key practitioner messages: 1. LCA provides a nuanced understanding of SSNR versus a domain-based conceptualization. Capturing the different classes could provide ideas on which factor is most influential in preventing and/or reducing peer-violence experiences for both policy and programming. 2. SSNRs were protective for peer-violence outcomes cross-sectionally across all three sites. Parents were highlighted in reducing both victimization and perpetration. Interventions aiming to address violence among adolescents should consider parent and adolescent involvement in the research process. © 2025 Elsevier Ltd