Learning from the past: Vulnerability analysis and cascading hazard classification of the three major volcanic eruption in Indonesia

There is a significant gap in understanding the social impacts of three major volcanic eruption in Indonesia, namely Samalas, Tambora, and Krakatau in 1257, 1815, and 1883, respectively. Although these events have been widely studied in geological and volcanic contexts, the societal impacts and the associated cascading hazard has not been thoroughly compared. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the community responses and impacts of the catastrophic events using historical documents that reflected societal memories, including Babad Lombok, Babad Sembalun, Babad Suwung, Syair Kerajaan Bima, and Syair Lampung Karam, as well as records from the Dutch East Indies period. The results showed that all documented social memuries articulate the communities reactions and the resultant consequences of the eruption. Furthermore, geological and vulcanological data from previous studies were used to describe the characteristics of past vulnerability. Samalas exhibited the longest recovery process, while Krakatau resulted in the highest number of casualties due to its cascading hazard. All events were categorized within the M4 scale of cascading hazard, showing the complexity of the disasters. In conclusion, this study offered critical insights into Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) programs, showing the necessity of integrating historical social memory into modern risk management strategies. By understanding past community responses, DRR initiatives can prepare for future volcanic events, ensuring a more resilient society. © 2025 Faculty of Geography UGM and The Indonesian Geographers Association.