Understanding membrane fouling in pressure-driven and thermal-driven processes for brines applications: challenges, mechanisms, characterization, mitigation strategies, and future perspectives

Membrane-based processes have emerged as pivotal solutions for addressing global water scarcity and mineral recovery challenges. However, fouling, characterized by the deposition of organic, inorganic, and biological substances, remains a significant obstacle, particularly in brine treatment applications. This review explores the intricate mechanisms of membrane fouling, including biofouling, scaling, organic fouling, and particulate fouling, alongside their interrelated impacts on membrane performance. Advanced characterization techniques such as Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT), Raman Spectroscopy, and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) are highlighted for their contributions to understanding fouling dynamics. Furthermore, the study emphasizes innovative mitigation strategies, including pre-treatment methods, surface modification technologies, and real-time monitoring systems, which are critical for enhancing membrane longevity and efficiency. Looking forward, the integration of Industry 5.0 principles, artificial intelligence (AI), and robotics in brine management holds transformative potential, enabling predictive maintenance, enhanced operational efficiency, and sustainable resource recovery. This comprehensive analysis highlights the need for interdisciplinary research and cutting-edge innovation to address the multifaceted challenges of membrane fouling and optimize brine treatment systems. © 2025